Ashtanga Yoga

Ashtanga Yoga

Niyamas: The niyamas are the second constituents of Ashtanga Yoga. How we interact with ourselves, our internal world. The niyamas are about self-regulation—helping us maintain a positive environment in which to grow. Their practice harnesses the energy generated from the cultivation of the earlier yamas. According to sage Yajnavalkya, there are ten niyamas and the Bhagavad Gita lists 11 constituents. But Patanjali names only five:
• Shaucha or purity,
• Santosha or contentment,
• Tapa or austerity,
• Swadhyaya or self-education and
• Ishwar-Pranidhan or meditation on the Divine
Shaucha implies both external as well as internal purity. In the words of sage Manu, water purifies the body; truthfulness the mind; true knowledge the intellect and the soul is purified by knowledge and austerity. It advocates the practices of intellectual purity, purity of speech and of the body.The second niyama is that of contentment, which is described as not desiring more than what one has earned by his honest labor. This state of mind is about maintaining equanimity through all that life offers. Santosha involves the practice of gratitude and joyfulness—maintaining calm at all costs. This state of mind does not depend on any external causes.Austerity, the third niyama, is described in Yoga philosophy as power to stand thirst and hunger, cold and heat, discomforts of place and postures, silent meditation and ritual fasts. It also maintains that the perfect man is he who practices both mental as well as physical austerity.According to the commentator Vyas, self-education or swadhyaya consists of scriptural studies. The scripture being, the Vedas and Upanishads together with the recitation of the Gayatri Mantra and the Om mantra.Commentators describe Ishwar-Pranidhan, the last of the niyamas, as the dedication of all our actions, performed either by intellect, speech or body, to the Divine. The results of all such actions are by definition, therefore, dependent upon Divine decision. The mortal mind can simply aspire to realize the Divine through dedication, purification, tranquilization and concentration of the mind. This Divine contemplation spills over to all aspects of the yogi's life.

The Benefits of Practicing Yamas and Niyamas:The yamas and niyamas help in managing our energy in an integrative manner, complementing our outer life to our inner development. They help us view ourselves with compassion and awareness. They help in respecting the values of this life, in balancing our inner growth with outer restraint. In short they help us to lead a conscious life. Yamas and niyamas are not about right and wrong. They are about being honest with the true Self. Living according to these principles are about living our lives in a better way, about moving towards an understanding, about making it possible to 'connect' with the Divine.

A yogasana is a posture in harmony with one's inner consciousness. It aims at the attainment of a sustained and comfortable sitting posture to facilitate meditation. Asanas also help in balancing and harmonizing the basic structure of the human body, which is why they have a range of therapeutic uses too.
Functions of Yogasanas
Asanas basically perform five functions:
• Conative,
• Cognitive,
• Mental,
• Intellectual and
• Spiritual.
Conative action is the voluntary exercise of the organs of action. The asanas being the main yogic instrument of balancing the body, they consist of various physical postures, which are designed to release tension, improve flexibility and maximize the flow of vital energy. The purpose of the asanas is to create a flow of positive energy so that our concentration is directed within ourselves and the mind is able to perceive (parokshya jnana) the effects of our purposive action. That is cognitive action.
When the earlier two actions are fused, our mind's discriminative faculty guides these organs to perform the asanas more correctly. The resultant rhythmic energy flow and awareness leads to a mental state of pure joy (ananda). Physical postures, therefore, end up affecting the various interrelated channels (nadis) of the mind-body complex. And ultimately the performance of a perfect yogasana leads to the absolute intellectual absorption of the mind on a single task (dharana), which in turn leads to the fusion of the individual spirit with the Divine Self (dhyana).

Benefits of Yogasanas
The regular practice of yogasanas has an immense amount of therapeutic value. Besides various physiological benefits, they positively affect our minds, our life force energies as well as our creative intelligence.
Regular practice helps to keep our body fit, controls cholesterol level, reduces weight, normalizes blood pressure and improves heart performance. Physical fitness thus achieved leads to reduction of physical stress and greater vitality. Asanas harmonize our pranic ability and mental energy flow by clearing any blockages in the subtle body leading to mental equilibrium and calmness. They make the mind strong thus enabling our human body to suffer pain and unhappiness stoically and with fortitude.
Various Categories of Yogasanas
Consummate mastery over the entire gamut of asanas is no doubt time-consuming, but what is of vital importance is the will to remain in the present moment and to let both the mind and body relax completely.
The various categories of asanas are:
• Standing Asanas,
• Forward Bending Asanas,
• Supine Asanas,
• Inverted Asanas,
• Abdominal and Lumbar Asanas,
• Twisting Asanas,
• Back Bending Asanas and
• Balancing Asanas.
Standing Asanas:
Beginners should start with these as they bring elasticity in joints and muscles and build up stamina and physical stability. This constitutes the most basic training in the early stages of yoga practice. Some basic standing poses are, Tadasana, Utthita Trikonasana, Virabhadrasana, Ardha Chandrasana and Utthita Parsvakonasana.
Forward Bending Asanas:
In these postures the posterior half of the body is stretched. These prepare you to proceed further in yoga and bring consistency in the development of physical and mental pliability. Examples of such asanas are, Upavisthakonasana and Paschimotanasana.
Sitting and Supine Asanas:
Sitting upright and supine extending positions help a sadhaka prepare physically and mentally for pranayama. Some of them are, Baddhakonasana, Supta Baddhakonasana, Supta Padangusthanasana, Padmasana, Vajrasana, Simhasana, Virasana and so on.
Inverted Asanas:
These help recover from everyday stress. They give vitality, mental balance and emotional stability. These are Adho Mukha Svanasa and Urdhva Mukha Svanasa.
Abdominal and Lumbar Asanas:
These tone and massage the abdominal organs and strengthen the pelvic and lumbar areas. Bharadvajasana and Marichyasana are some examples of such asanas.
Twisting Asanas:
It consists of lateral stretching and twisting of the spine, toning the internal organs and reaching new horizons while tranquilizing the mind. These are, Ardha Matsyendrasana and Jathara Parivartanasana.
Back Bending Asanas:
These bring physical and mental sharpness and alertness. The postures are the opposite of forward bends as are the effects. In forward bends the posterior spine is extended, bringing consistency and mental peace, whereas in back bends the anterior spine is extended and stretched. The effect is invigorating and enlivening. Such asanas are, Ustrasana, Bhujangasana and Matsyasana.
Balancing Asanas:
These strengthen the arms and wrists and exercise the abdominal organs. They also make the body feel light and help attain a good bearing. Salamba Sirsasana, Niralamba Sarvangasana and Salamba Sarvangasana are some of the balancing asanas.

'Pranayama' is a compound term ('prana' and 'yama') meaning the maintenance of prana in a healthy throughout one's life. More than a breath-control exercise, pranayama is all about controlling the life force or prana. Ancient yogis, who understood the essence of prana, studied it and devised methods and practices to master it. These practices are better known as pranayama. Since breath or prana is basic to life, the practice of pranayama helps in harnessing the prana in and around us, and by deepening and extending it, pranayama leads to a state of inner peace.
According to Hatha Yoga, pranayamas can be classified under:
• Sahita Kumbhaka,
• Surya Bhedi,
• Ujjayi,
• Sitali,
• Bhastrika,
• Bhramari,
• Murchha and
• Kewali.
The first is a breath retention technique, which gives agility, strength and flexibility to the body. They also quieten the mind and the sense organs besides enabling the meditator to control his hunger and thirst.
The Surya Bhedi pranayama consists of inhaling through the right nostril and exhaling through the left. This practice promotes good digestion and through perspiration, it purges the body of all its impurities.
Ujjayi pranayama involves the travel of breath between the nose and the heart only. It acts like an expectorant and increases digestion together with removing all impurities of nerves as well as thoughts.
Bhramari pranayama involves a very concentrated and fixed breathing exercise. It helps in strengthening one's breath besides quietening the mind and increasing the powers of concentration. This breathing technique is very helpful in the last meditative stage of samadhi.
Murchha pranayama is an extreme form of breath retention, which only experienced yogis can achieve. This practice quietens the mind and helps it to reach the near-unconscious state.
The last technique of Kewali pranayama, is a breath retention technique in which, the yogi stops both inhalation as well as exhalation. This form balances inhalation and exhalation besides helping the mind to concentrate better.

Benefits of Pranayama
The practices of pranayama—the correct breathing technique helps to manipulate our energies. Most of us breathe incorrectly, using only half of our lung capacity. Pranayama is a technique, which re-educates our breathing process, helps us to release tensions and develop a relaxed state of mind. It also balances our nervous system and encourages creative thinking. In addition, by increasing the amount of oxygen to our brain it improves mental clarity, alertness and physical well being.
When practiced along with yogasanas the benefits of pranayama are more pronounced. According to Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, pranayama enables the mind to acquire the capacity to concentrate on any given object of attention. It also says that scientific breathing helps in unveiling true knowledge from the darkness of ignorance. But it is eminently advisable to be aware of all the do's and don'ts of pranayama before practicing them.
Various Stages of Pranayama
The following are the stages of pranayama:
• Inhalation or puraka,
• Exhalation or rechaka,
• Stambhavritti pranayama and
• Bahyabhyantarakshepi pranayama.
Puraka or inhalation techniques are about regular and controlled inhalation. It also teaches regulating the entire breathing process and reducing the number of inhalations per minute. Rechaka or exhalation exercises teach slow and ordered breathing besides reducing the number of inhalations and exhalations per minute. The third stage consists of retaining the breath after stopping natural inhalation and exhalation. The last stage of pranayama is about converting both exhalation and inhalation into retention and storing the retained breathe in various internal organs for various lengths of time.

Pratyahara involves rightly managing the senses and going beyond them instead of simply closing and suppressing them. It involves reining in the senses for increased attention rather than distraction. Pratyahara may be practiced with mantra meditation and visualization techniques.
Benefits of Pratyahara It is essential to practice pratyahara for achieving the three meditative stages of dharana, dhyana and samadhi. Perfecting this technique of yoga is also essential in order to break out from the eternal cycle of rebirths.

The last three limbs of Ashtanga Yoga are the three essential stages of meditation. Dharana involves developing and extending our powers of concentration. This consists of various ways of directing and controlling our attention and mind-fixing skills, such as concentrating on the chakras or turning inwards.

Dhyana is the state of meditation, when the mind attains the ability to sustain its attention without getting distracted. Strictly speaking, unlike the other six limbs of yoga, this is not a technique but rather a state of mind, a delicate state of awareness. This state rightfully precedes the final state of Samadhi

Samadhi, or total absorption, is the ability to become one with the True Self and merge into the object of concentration. In this state of mind, the perceiver and the object of perception unite through the very act of perception—a true unity of all thought and action. This is the acme of all yogic endeavors—the ultimate 'yoga' or connection between the individual and the universal Soul!
Patanjali's Yoga Sutra categorizes and grades the levels of samadhi in the first chapter or Samadhi Pada:
• Samprajnata Samadhi or distinguished contemplation and
• Asamprajnata Samadhi or non-distinguished contemplation,
• Savitarka Samadhi or deliberated absorption and
• Nirvitarka Samadhi or non-deliberated absorption,
• Savichara Samadhi or reflective meditation and
• Nirvichara Samadhi or non-reflective meditation,
• Sabija Samadhi, where the mind continues to carry seeds of earthly impressions and
• Nirbija Samadhi, where each seed of earthly impressions have been erased.

Yoga is a way of life

Yoga is a way of life. It is predominantly concerned with maintaining a state of equanimity at all costs. All yoga schools of thought emphasize the importance of the mind remaining calm, because as the saying goes, only when the water is still can you see through it. Yoga Darshan or Yoga Philosophy also happens to be a valid discipline of Indian metaphysics (Brahma Vidya). It is the result of human wisdom and insight on physiology, psychology, ethics and spirituality collected together and practiced over thousands of years for the well being of humanity. The basic idea of yoga is to unite the atma or individual soul with the paramatma or the Universal Soul. According to Yoga philosophy, by cleansing one's mind and controlling one's thought processes one can return to that primeval state, when the individual self was nothing but a part of the Divine Self. This is the sense encapsulated in the term samadhi. The aim of the yogi is to be able to perceive the world in its true light and to accept that truth in its entirety.In Sanskrit, the term 'yoga' stands for 'union'. A yogi's ultimate aim is to be able to attain this 'union' with the Eternal Self with the help of certain mental and physical exercises. It is often said that Hiranyagarbha (The Cosmic Womb) Himself had originally advocated the traditional system of yoga, from which all other yoga schools have evolved. But for all extant knowledge of yoga and its practices, such as yogasanas and pranayama, the entire credit goes to Maharishi Patanjali. Patanjali systematized the various yogic practices and traditions of his times by encapsulating them in the form of aphorisms in his Yoga Sutra. In this momentous work, he describes the aim of yoga as knowledge of the self and outlines the eight steps or methods of achieving it. These are:
• Yamas or eternal vows,
• Niyamas or observances,
• Yogasanas or yoga postures,
• Pranayama or breath control exercises,
• Pratyahara or withdrawal of the senses from distractions of the outside world,
• Dharana or concentration on an object, place or subject,
• Dhyana or the continuance of this concentration-meditation and
• Samadhi or the ultimate stage of yoga meditation.
The collation of these eight steps is known as Patanjali's Ashtanga Yoga.

Yoga Mudras

Yoga Mudras
Yoga Mudras - Hand and Finger Postures
Mudra is the science of hand and finger postures. It can help to cure bodily ailments in a wonderful manner. It affects the body's energetic sysytem and the flow of prana (life energy) within it. It actually helps in balancing the five elements ( panch-tattvas ) in the human system to their optimal levels.

Abhaya Mudra
"Abhaya" means "fearless". Abhaya Mudra represents protection, peace, benevolence, and dispelling of fear.

Gyan Mudra
"Gyan" means "knowledge". It is the gesture of knowledge. This mudra is considered to bestow intelligence and wisdom. Hence the name.

Linga Mudra
"Linga" or "Angustha" means "phallus". Thumb is a symbol of masculinity.

Mritasanjeevani Mudra

Prithvi Mudra
"Prithvi" means "Earth". This mudra helps balance the earth element in the body.

Purna Gyan Mudra
This is the mudra of Lord Buddha.

Shunya Mudra
"Shunya" means "zero" or "sky". Sky is connected with the highest forces - with the "upper person" - with head.

Surya Mudra
"Surya" means "sun". Sun is the source of energy. Virtue of its energy is present in all living beings. Surya mudra attracts energy of the Sun.

Varuna Mudra
"Varuna" means "water" in Sanskrit. It balances the water element in the body.

Vaayu Mudra
"Vaayu" means "air" in Sanskrit. It balances the air element in the body.

Yoga Asanas or Poses

Yoga Poses
Yoga Exercises > Yoga Asanas or Poses
Yoga Asanas or postures are body positions, typically associated with the practice of Yoga. They are intended primarily to restore and maintain a practitioner's well-being, improve the body's flexibility and vitality.
Akarshana Dhanurasana - Pulled Bow Pose
"Akarshana" means "pulling" and "Dhanus" means "bow" in Sanskrit. In this posture, the big toes are pulled up to the ear (alternately) as an archer pulls back the string of his bow and gets ready to shoot an arrow.

Anantasana
This is a pose named after the sleeping position of Lord Vishnu.

Ardha Halasana - The Half-Plough Pose
"Ardha" means 'half' and 'Hala' means 'plough' in.


Ardha Matsyendrasana - The Half-Spinal Twist
"Ardha" means "half" in Sanskrit. Since the full posture is difficult to be practiced, the half-posture, which is easier, is followed widely. This posture was first promoted by the great Yogi Matsyendranath, one of the founders of Hatha Yoga, and hence the name.

Ardha Padmasana - Half-Lotus Pose
"Ardha" means "half" and "Padma" means "lotus" in Sanskrit. Those who are unable to assume the full Padmasana posture using both legs as described above owing to the stiffness of their legs or bulky thighs may begin practicing with one leg at a time alternately until they are able to develop the full posture. With the practice of this asana daily, they will be able to take that posture for a long time without discomfort and switch on to the full Padmasana posture after sufficient practice.

Ardha Shalabhasana - Half-Locust Pose
"Shalabha" means "locust" in Sanskrit. The final position of this asana resembles a locust when it lowers its head to eat and raises its tail. Hence, the name. 'Ardha' means 'half' in Sanskrit.

Baddha Konasana
"Baddha" means "locked-up" and "kona" means "angle" in Sanskrit.

Baddha Padmasana - The Locked Lotus Pose
"Baddha" means "bound' or "locked-up" in Sanskrit. The limbs of the body (both arms and legs) are firmly 'locked-up' and immobilized in this posture so as to give it steadiness. In this posture, the big toes are grasped by the fingers with arms crossed from behind.

Bhadrasana - The Locked Lotus Pose
"Bhadra" means 'beneficial' in Sanskrit.

Bhujangasana - Cobra Pose
"Bhujanga" means "cobra" in Sanskrit. This asana is called "Bhujangasana" as the raised trunk, neck and head while practicing it resemble a cobra rearing its hood and about to strike, while the joined and stretched legs resemble its tail.
Chakrasana - Wheel Pose (Standing)
"Chakra" means "wheel" in Sanskrit.

Chakrasana - Wheel Pose (Supine)
"Chakra" means "wheel" in Sanskrit. In the final position of this asana, the body is arched backward and resembles the rim of a wheel. Hence the name.

Dandasana - Stick Pose
"Danda" means "stick" in Sanskrit.

Dhanurasana - Bow Pose
"Dhanus" means "bow" in Sanskrit. In the final position of this asana, the body takes the shape of a bow, drawn tight to shoot an arrow. The stretched arms and lower legs resemble the taut bowstring, while the trunk and thighs resemble the wooden part of the bow.

Gomukhasana - Cow-Face Pose
"Go" means "cow" and "Mukha" means "face" in Sanskrit. When this asana is performed, the final position of the legs resembles the face of a cow.

Halasana - Plough Pose
"Hala" means "Plough" in Sanskrit. This posture is called 'Halasana' because in the final position the body resembles the Indian plough.

Januhastasana - Hand-to-Knee Pose
"Janu" means "knee" and "hasta" means "hand" in Sanskrit. The hand is made to rest near the knee in this posture, hence the name.

Janusirasana - Head-to-Knee Pose
"Janu" means "knee" and "Siras" means "head" in Sanskrit. The head is made to rest on the knee in this posture, hence the name.

Makarasana - Crocodile Pose
"Makar" means "crocodile" in Sanskrit.

Mandukasana - Frog Pose
"Manduk" means "frog" in Sanskrit. The arrangement of the legs in this posture resembles the hind legs of a frog. Hence the name.

Matsyasana - Fish Pose
"Matsya" means "fish" in Sanskrit. If a person lies steadily on water in this posture, he can keep floating on it easily like a fish without the help of the hands and legs, as the name of the asana suggests.

Naukasana - Boat Pose
"Nauka" means "boat" in Sanskrit. The final position of this asana resembles a boat. Hence the name.

Oordhwa Pada Hastasana - Hand-to-Raised-Feet Pose
"Oordhwa" means "raised", "Pada" means "foot" and "Hasta" means "hand" in Sanskrit. You have to touch your raised feet with your hands in this posture.

Padahastasana - Hand-to-Feet Pose
"Pada" means "foot" and "Hasta" means "hand" in Sanskrit. You have to catch your big toes with your hands in this posture.

Padmasana - Lotus Pose
"Padma" means "lotus" in Sanskrit. "Padmasana" means sitting in the "Lotus Pose". This posture is called Padmasana because the arrangement of the hands and feet resemble a lotus when seen from a distance. The two feet placed upon the opposite thigh resemble the leaves while the two hands placed one over the other resembles the lotus in full bloom.

Parvatasana - Mountain Pose
"Parvata" means "mountain" in Sanskrit. As the arms are raised high and the fingers are joined together above the head in this posture, the body resembles mountain peak and hence the name.

Paschimotanasana - Posterior Stretch
"Paschima" means 'behind', 'back' or 'posterior' and 'Uttana' means to stretch out in Sanskrit. "Paschimotana" means stretching the posterior regions of the body.

Pavanamuktasana - Wind-releasing Pose
"Pavana" means "wind" and "Mukta" means release in Sanskrit. As the name suggests, this asana massages the digestive organs and gives relief from excess wind in the stomach and intestines.

Purna Titali Asana - Full Butterfly Pose
"Titali" means "butterfly" in Sanskrit.

Samasana - Equilibrium Pose
In Sanskrit "sama" means "equilibrium". In this asana the external organs of the body are kept in such a way that they stand divided into two, hence the name Samasana.

Sarvangasana - All-Parts Pose
"Shalabha" means "locust" in Sanskrit. The final position of this asana resembles a locust when it lowers its head to eat and raises its tail. Hence, the name.

Sasankasana - Hare Pose
"Sasanka" means "hare" in Sanskrit. The final position of this asana resembles a bounding hare.

Savasana - Corpse Pose
"Sava" means "dead body" in Sanskrit. To practice this asana, one should lie motionless on the floor like as dead body in order to secure complete relaxation of all parts of his body and remove tensions, both physical and mental.

Shalabhasana - Locust Pose
"Shalabha" means "locust" in Sanskrit. The final position of this asana resembles a locust when it lowers its head to eat and raises its tail. Hence, the name.

Siddhasana - Pose of an Adept
"Siddha" means a spiritually enlightened person in Sanskrit.

Sirshasana - Head stand
"Sirsha" means "head" in Sanskrit. It is required to "stand on his head" in this asana and hence the name.

Sukhasana - Comfortable Pose
"Sukha" means "pleasant" or "comfortable" in Sanskrit. Any cross-legged sitting position which you find comfortable, in which the body does not shake and in which you can remain at ease for a long time, is called Sukhasana.
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Supta Udarakarshanasana - Lying Abdominal Twist
This pose involves abdominal twisting.

Supta Vajrasana - Reclining Vajrasana
"Supta" means "asleep" in Sanskrit. "Supta Vajrasana" is lying down supine in Vajrasana.

Talasana - Palm-tree Pose
"Tala" means "palm tree" in Sanskrit. In this posture, the body is held upright like the trunk of a palm tree. Hence the name.

Trikonasana - Triangle Pose
"Tri" means "three", "Kona" means "angle", and "Trikona" means "triangle" in Sanskrit The straight legs with the floor between the feet resemble the three sides of a triangle in this asana. Hence the name.

Urdhvamukha Svanasana - Upward-facing dog pose
This pose is also called Downward Dog or Downward-Facing Dog.

Ushtrasana - Camel Pose
"Ushtra" means "camel" in Sanskrit.

Utkatasana - Half-Squat Pose
"Ut" means 'raised' and "kata' means "hips" in Sanskrit. This posture is known as "Utkatasana" because while practicing it, the heels and hips are raised.

Uttanapadasana - Raised-leg Pose
In this asana both the legs are raised upwards and so is called 'dwipada' (both legs) uttanpadasana.

Vajrasana - Adamant Pose
"Vajra" means "adamant" in Sanskrit. Sitting in this asana will provide firmness or stability to the sitter like that of an adamant person. Hence the name.

Vakrasana - Twisted Pose
"Vakra" means "twisted". This asana is designed to twist the spine to the right and left side in from its erect position.

Veerasana - Warrior Pose
"Veera" in Sanskrit means "brave". The way a brave man takes his position while attacking his enemy, the similar position is formed in this asana. Hence it is called as "Veerasana", the pose of a Warrior.

Viparita Karani - Inverted Pose
"Viparita" means "inverted" and "Karani" means "action" in Sanskrit. The usual posture of the body is inverted in this practice.

Vrikshasana - Tree Pose
"Vriksha" means "tree" in Sanskrit. In the final position of this asana, you have to stand still like a tree.

Yoga

Yoga
Yoga refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines originating in India, to the goal achieved by those disciplines, and to one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy. Outside India, yoga is mostly associated with the practice of asanas (postures) of Hatha Yoga or as a form of exercise. A practitioner of Yoga is called a Yogi (male) or Yogini (female).
Classified by the type of practices, some branches of yoga are: Raja Yoga, Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, and Hatha Yoga. Raja Yoga, compiled in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and known simply as yoga in the context of Hindu philosophy, is part of the Samkhya tradition. Many other Hindu texts discuss aspects of yoga, including the Vedas, Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Shiva Samhita and various Tantras.
The Sanskrit term yoga has many meanings. It is derived from the Sanskrit root yuj, "to control", "to yoke", or "to unite". Common meanings include "joining" or "uniting", and related ideas such as "union" and "conjunction". Another conceptual definition is that of "mode, manner, means" or "expedient, means in general".
History of Yoga
While the most ancient mystic practices are vaguely hinted at in the Vedas, the ascetic practices (tapas) are referenced in the Brāhmaṇas (900 BCE and 500 BCE), early commentaries on the vedas. In the Upanishads, an early reference to meditation is made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the earliest Upanishads (approx. 900 BCE). The main textual sources for the evolving concept of Yoga are the middle Upanishads, (ca. 400 BCE), the Mahabharata (5th c. BCE) including the Bhagavad Gita (ca. 200 BCE), and the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (200 BCE-300 CE). Several seals discovered at Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 BC) sites depict figures in a yoga- or meditation-like posture, "a form of ritual discipline, suggesting a precursor of yoga" that point to Harappan devotion to "ritual discipline and concentration", according to Archaeologist Gregory Possehl.
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox philosophical schools. The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the Samkhya school. The Yoga school as expounded by Patanjali accepts the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the Samkhya, as evidenced by the addition of a divine entity to the Samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality. The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...." The intimate relationship between Samkhya and Yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:
These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline. Sāṅkhya provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage (bandha), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release (mokṣa), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, and outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or 'isolation-integration' (kaivalya).


The sage Patanjali is widely regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy. Patanjali's yoga is known as Raja yoga, which is a system for control of the mind. Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra, which is the definitional sutra for his entire work:
This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K. Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodhaḥ) of the modifications (vṛtti) of the mind (citta)". Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."
Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-limbed concept derived from the 29th Sutra of the 2nd book, and is a core characteristic of practically every Raja yoga variation taught today. The Eight Limbs are:
(1) Yama (The five "abstentions"): non-violence, non-lying, non-covetousness, non-sensuality, and non-possessiveness.
(2) Niyama (The five "observances"): purity, contentment, austerity, study, and surrender to god.
(3) Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation.
(4) Pranayama ("Lengthening Prāna"): Prāna, life force, or vital energy, particularly, the breath, "āyāma", to lengthen or extend. Also interpreted as control of prana.
(5) Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
(6) Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.
(7) Dhyana ("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
(8) Samadhi ("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.

Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term yoga extensively in a variety of ways. In addition to an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditation, it introduces three prominent types of yoga:
Karma yoga: The yoga of action
Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion
Jnana yoga: The yoga of knowledge
Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita into three sections, with the first six chapters dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six with Bhakti yoga, and the last six with Jnana (knowledge). Other commentators ascribe a different 'yoga' to each chapter, delineating eighteen different yogas.
Hatha Yoga
Hatha Yoga is a particular system of Yoga described by Yogi Swatmarama, compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika in 15th century India. Hatha Yoga differs substantially from the Raja Yoga of Patanjali in that it focuses on shatkarma, the purification of the physical body as leading to the purification of the mind (ha), and prana, or vital energy (tha). Compared to the seated asana, or sitting meditation posture, of Patanjali's Raja yoga, it marks the development of asanas (plural) as full body 'postures' now in popular usage.
Hatha Yoga in its many modern variations is the style that many people associate with the word "Yoga" today. Because its emphasis is on the body through asana and pranayama practice, many western students are satisfied with the physical health and vitality it develops and are not interested in the other seven limbs of the Raja Yoga tradition.
Yoga practices in other traditions
Yoga and Sufism
The development of Sufism was considerably influenced by Indian yogic practises, where they adapted both physical postures (asanas) and breath control (pranayama). The ancient Indian yogic text, Amritakunda, ("Pool of Nectar)" was translated into Arabic and Persian as early as the 11th century.
Yoga and Buddhism
Main article: Yoga and Buddhism
Yoga is intimately connected to the religious beliefs and practices of the Indian religions. The influence of Yoga is also visible in Buddhism, a descendant of Hinduism, which is distinguished by its austerities, spiritual exercises, and trance states.
Yogacara Buddhism
Yogacara (Sanskrit: "Practice of Yoga [Union]" ), also spelled yogāchāra, is a school of philosophy and psychology that developed in India during the 4th to 5th centuries.
Yogacara received the name as it provided a yoga, a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the bodhisattva. The Yogacara sect teaches yoga in order to reach enlightenment.
Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism
Zen (the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyana" via the Chinese "ch'an") is a form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for its proximity with Yoga. In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga; the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblances. This phenomenon merits special attention since the Zen Buddhist school of meditation has some of its roots in yogic practices. Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.
Tibetan Buddhism
Yoga is central to Tibetan Buddhism. In the Nyingma tradition, practitioners progress to increasingly profound levels of yoga, starting with Mahā yoga, continuing to Anu yoga and ultimately undertaking the highest practice, Ati yoga. In the Sarma traditions, the Anuttara yoga class is equivalent. Other tantra yoga practices include a system of 108 bodily postures practiced with breath and heart rhythm. Timing in movement exercises is known as Trul khor or union of moon and sun (channel) prajna energies. The body postures of Tibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the walls of the Dalai Lama's summer temple of Lukhang. A semi-popular account of Tibetan Yoga by Chang (1993) refers to Dumo, the generation of heat in one's own body, as being "the very foundation of the whole of Tibetan Yoga" (Chang, 1993, p7). Chang also claims that Tibetan Yoga involves reconciliation of apparent polarities, such as prana and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism.
Yoga and Tantra
Tantrism is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its practitioners to the ordinary social, religious, and logical reality in which they live. Through Tantric practice an individual perceives reality as maya, illusion, and the individual achieves liberation from it. This particular path to salvation among the several offered by Hinduism, links Tantrism to those practices of Indian religions, such as yoga, meditation, and social renunciation, which are based on temporary or permanent withdrawal from social relationships and modes.
During tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation technique, particularly chakra meditation. This is often in a limited form in comparison with the way this kind of meditation is known and used by Tantric practitioners and yogis elsewhere, but is more elaborate than the initiate's previous meditation. It is considered to be a kind of Kundalini Yoga for the purpose of moving the Goddess into the chakra located in the "heart," for meditation and worship.
Goal of Yoga
The goal of yoga may range from anywhere between improved health and reaching Moksha. Within the monist schools of Advaita Vedanta and Shaivism the goal of yoga takes the form of Moksha, which is liberation from all worldly suffering and the cycle of birth and death (Samsara), at which point there is a realisation of identity with the Supreme Brahman. In the Mahabharata, the goal of yoga is variously described as entering the world of Brahma, as Brahman, or as perceiving the Brahman or Atman that pervades all things. For the bhakti schools of Vaishnavism, bhakti or service to Svayam bhagavan itself is the ultimate goal of the yoga process, wherein perfection culminates in an eternal relationship with Vishnu, Rama or Krsna.

References
wikipedia.org

Saroja Vaidyanathan

Saroja Vaidyanathan
"...Married women, whether they agree or not with the old adage about a woman's place being in the home, often do find that if they stay away from it for too long, the exalted edifice really does begin to fall apart at an alarming rate, literally and metaphorically. Round the world and down the ages, this situation has posed a challenge to women.
Some found the answer to this challenge in striking out on their own, dispensing with the props -- and the bondage -- of husband, children and extended family. Others, especially in India, found that they could use their tact, skills and time in such a way as to maintain their place behind the lace curtain, but at the same time make the outer world come inside. That this kind of compromise frequently takes place in India is not surprising, considering this is the land where the word 'adjust' has taken on mystical meanings.
Saroja Vaidyanathan, Bharata Natyam exponent and guru, author and founder of Ganesa Natyalaya, is one woman who found her destiny through this attitude of adjustment. At sixty-one, in the midst of the year-long Silver Jubilee celebrations of her institute, Guru Saroja tells her story with a disarming simplicity, devoid of rancour.
Married in her teens to an IAS officer posted in Bihar, the young Saroja, trained in Bharata Natyam by Guru Lalitha, a direct disciple of Kattumannar Muthukumaran Pillai, and in Carnatic music by the celebrated Professor P Sambamoorthy, suddenly found herself in an atmosphere where classical dance was derided as "Nautanki."
"Why does your wife need to do Nautanki? What does she lack at home?" was the constant query of her husband's concerned colleagues. Naturally enough, her husband could not remain unaffected, and persuaded her to stop dancing. So for some years Saroja fitted herself into the strait jacket of the ideal housewife. Of course this could not go on forever, and surely enough the obedient young wife was soon guardedly peeking out of her gilded nest for a glimpse of the sky. She wouldn't dance, she assured her husband. But could she teach dance to children? Mr Vaidyanathan could not see anything scandalous about teaching children, and permission was easily granted.
Saroja Vaidyanathan got back in touch with the art she loved, and as she became known as a teacher, public opinion did an amusing about-face. "Why does your wife only teach dance?" was the refrain of anxious colleagues this time. "She should also perform!"
And so it was that Saroja Vaidyanathan began to give small performances at venues previously vetted and okayed as "decent," such as the Rotary Club and other social gatherings. In later years she gave many performances in different parts of India and the world. But it was her natural aptitude for teaching that was destined to bring her into the limelight. Her husband's transfer to the capital in 1972 was probably the healthiest thing that could have happened to her own career.
As students started trickling in to her classes at the spacious government quarters in central Delhi, a bolder dream than to merely be a dancer and teacher began to broaden her horizons. The seeds of a thriving institution, dedicated to the teaching and propagation of Bharata Natyam, were germinating in her fertile imagination. The Ganesa Natyalaya was officially established in 1974, but the ground reality of three disciples and a young teacher mocked at the grandiose dream.
Recalling the lack of encouragement on this front from her husband, she clarifies that his main concern was that his integrity as a highly placed government official should not be questioned. He felt his image would suffer if he supported her. On the other hand, he could not imagine his wife might be capable of carrying out the project by herself. It is not surprising therefore, that he discouraged her in perfectly good faith, and emphatically reminded her that any attempt to single handedly build up an entire institution, and that too in Delhi, was ridiculous.
"I am a very determined person," she goes on genially, explaining how she got round the problem. Mr. Jagmohan, then Lt. Governor of Delhi, was known to the Vaidyanathans in his official as well as personal capacities. When Guru Saroja expressed the desire to acquire a plot of land in the Qutub Institutional Area (QIA) to construct a building for her institute, he gently persuaded Mr Vaidyanathan to let her try.
The Institutional Area was brand new then, and the price for the plot of land was only about a Lakh of rupees: cheap enough for someone who had the money, but a challenge for Saroja, whose husband told her she could expect no help whatsoever from him in raising funds. She set about collecting the money with the help of well wishers and sponsors. Pitching in with her personal savings, she managed to purchase the land in 1981. After this achievement, her husband was delighted to acknowledge her capabilities and thereafter extended his whole hearted support to her endeavours. The building was inaugurated in 1988.
In the interim, Guru Saroja continued with her performances and the evening classes at home. Early mornings found her at the site, sitting with the workers, overseeing the construction, and steadfastly praying that the empty and frightening wilderness in which she stood would one day resonate with the sound of music, dance and laughter.
Since the Natyalaya was one of the first institutions to move into its new premises in the QIA, it had no neighbours. The Founder President found herself lamenting to Mr Jagmohan, "How will we get students in the midst of this jungle!" But he assured her that the QIA would be a bustling and prime property soon enough, and of course he was right.
Today the road to Ganesa Natyalaya is lined with the huge boards and elegant gateways of renowned government and private institutions. Amidst the elaborate architecture of some of the other buildings, the simply designed Natyalaya presents almost a retiring look. There is no elegant reception area with gleaming brass lamps or ornate sculptures to greet visitors. But this is a place vibrant with constructive activity.
The rows and rows of footwear on the steps outside; the proud wooden boards inside displaying the names of the eighty students who have completed their arangetram so far, the walls of the classrooms adorned with large mirrors; and the scores of busy young people immersed in perfecting different aspects of their dance, all tell the story of the hard work and remarkable success of one immensely strong and dedicated individual.
On the paid staff of the Natyalaya are twelve dance teachers, mostly drawn from Guru Saroja's own disciples, apart from teachers for Carnatic vocal music, mridangam, Tamil, and Hindi as well as a full-time receptionist. All the students are required to learn to sing their dance items once they reach the Jatiswaram stage. They also learn to recite their jatis and korvais with the tala. In addition they learn stotras, apart from the shlokas connected to dance. The Tamil teacher ensures that they understand in detail the meanings of the Tamil lyrics of their dance items. For seniors and other interested students, she is available to take proper language classes. Similarly, the mridangam teacher imparts the basics of percussion to senior students. Students who are absorbed as dance teachers receive training in nattuvangam from their guru before taking up their duties.
With over a hundred students of varying capacities and ages on the regular roles and about fifty seniors who come from time to time for master classes, the administration of the institute is a mind boggling responsibility. Now that the teaching tasks are delegated between so many, Guru Saroja revels in the role of chief administrator.
Some of her students are holders of scholarships from the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) or from the Council for Cultural Resources and Training (CCRT). These come to the Natyalaya daily at ten in the morning and stay till six in the evening. During these eight hours they receive intensive training in Bharata Natyam along with related subjects. Hindi is a compulsory subject in the case of overseas students.
Part-time students receive two classes a week. These include school and college going children, who come during the afternoons, and adults who prefer morning sessions or weekends only. Apart from personally teaching the seniors and scholarship holders, Guru Saroja ensures the standard of the junior classes by conducting regular "spot checks."
Two large bookshelves of reference books stand in the office. All the dance dramas choreographed so far, as well as major performances by the troupe have been documented in a video library. Every year, she makes professional music recordings of the Bharata Natyam items choreographed by her. Copies of this music are available to students on payment of a nominal fee when required. The video, music and reading libraries are looked after by student helpers who are paid a token remuneration for their services to the Natyalaya. Similarly, the costumes, jewelry and photographs are looked after by students made mature by their guru's trust in them. The Natyalaya is an impressive example of decentralization not many institutions could boast of..
Guru Saroja is a prolific choreographer, with ten full length ballets and "around two thousand" individual Bharata Natyam items to her credit. Imaginative and lively choreography ensure that the performances of her troupe meet with popular appreciation in India as well as other countries. She makes it a point to pay her students for participating in performances of the Natyalaya, thus inculcating in them a sense of responsibility and pride in their work.
Today her students are known for their taut lines, confident technique and charming stage presence. If this was not the norm two decades ago, it is a measure of the multi-dimensional growth of the guru who has kept an open mind and blossomed along with her institution. To create such a large pool of competent Bharata Natyam dancers in Delhi is no mean achievement, as any teacher of the art will admit. Students of other gurus have also opted at times to train with Saroja Vaidyanathan for higher studies, bearing testimony not only to the success of her teaching skills but also the gentle temperament that endears her to everyone.
Saroja Vaidyanathan stands out in several ways from many other artists. She is so dignified that she actually relinquished the flat in the Asiad Village complex allotted to her under the artists' quota by the government when, after her husband's retirement, they decided to move to the tiny residential space in the Natyalaya premises in order to be closer to the work.
Though Saroja Vaidyanathan does not indulge in irrelevant or harmful gossip, she has had her share of brickbats, and cannot help voicing her offense at the whispers that success came easily to her because she was the wife of a high government official. Since deeds speak louder than words, she can afford to ignore any unfair criticism. Instead, she can be proud that she learnt her administrative lessons well. Though her husband is no longer by her side she is in complete command of the multiple activities of the institute.
If she has been criticized she has been amply recognized too. The Sahitya Kala Parishad Award, the titles of Natya Tilakam and Natya Kala Bhushani, and the latest among them, the prestigious Kalaimamani award of Tamil Nadu are some of the honours that have come her way.
As the Ganesa Natyalaya goes into its twenty-sixth year, its members and the ordinary citizens can be grateful that the wilderness became an orchard, and that the air is full of the sounds of song and dance, of laughter and prayer."

S Sarada: Dance scholar and teacher

S Sarada: Dance scholar and teacher
A life of accomplishments
"Few carry monumental scholarship, creativity and critical insights with such grace, dignity and humility." – Scholar Kapila Vatsyayan on S Sarada

In building up Kalakshetra, Rukmini Devi used her immense talent for persuading others to share her vision and dedicate themselves to the institution. Using this talent, she brought to Kalakshetra great artists like Tiger Varadachariar, his brother K. Krishnamachariar, Mylapore Gowriamma, Budalur Krishnamurthy Sastrigal, Mysore Vasudevachar and Karaikudi Samabasiva Iyer.
All these were stalwarts. Only one who later became a pillar at this temple of arts was virtually a beginner when she entered its portals. It was S Sarada, known within the campus as Peria Sarada, to distinguish her from Sarada Hoffman, aka Chinna Sarada, another teacher.
When Sarada retired from Kalakshetra in 1985, she was acknowledged as a diligent scholar and a fine teacher, but when she came to Kalakshetra in 1939, she was but a young woman of 24, well acquainted with various works of art and advaita but still a non-entity.
Though Sarada had formal education only up to Standard VIII, she had the good fortune to be educated at home by her grandfather, Pandit Subramania Sastri of Tanjavur. She studied with him the Sanskrit plays of Kalidasa, works like Kuvalayakandam and Siddhanta Kaumudi. She assisted him in reading the proofs of works on music, natya and Vedanta, both in Sanskrit and in Tamil. She also read the Yogavasishtha and the Gita with the commentaries of Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhwa. Her grandfather used to ask her to repeat the Dakshinamoorthy sloka which made her understand the advaita philosophy better.
Sarada's grandmother Lakshmi Ammal was also a learned lady from whom she got an insight into her cultural heritage. She learnt the violin initially and later on the veena as well from her mother Meenakshi who was a talented musician and a good vocalist.
Sarada's interest in dance began when her grandfather brought home paintings from the Saraswati Mahal Library in Tanjavur. She was fascinated by the postures of the dancers. On one occasion, as a youngster, she happened to watch a dance recital hiding behind stone pillars; the similarity between the pictures and dance movements seemed to leap out at her. Nonetheless the young girl never dreamt that she would become a dance guru one day, because she understood dance was only for devadasi-s, not for respectable family girls.
In her book entitled 'Kalakshetra-Rukmini Devi,' Sarada has vividly recollected her first impression of Rukmini Devi thus: "When I first saw Rukmini Devi at the pandal of the Music Academy's general session in 1934, I was stunned by her striking personality... Rukmini Devi had come to witness a dance performance and I was watching Rukmini Devi! After a few days I attended a Theosophical Convention meeting at the Theosophical Society... I saw Rukmini Devi for a few minutes. The fascination I felt for her persisted, even after I returned home to Tanjavur."
Sarada witnessed Rukmini Devi's first performance of Bharatanatyam when she attended the Diamond Jubilee Convention of the Theosophical Society in 1935. Just before this, some members of the Theosophical Society said that, considering she was the wife of the President of the Theosophical Society and a pupil of Dr. Besant, the fact that she had taken to this dance might bring a bad name to the Society. But Sarada shared her grandfather's view that this would not happen. She was especially impressed by the dance to the padam Manchi dinamu neday and by the costume she wore which "resembled the garments etched in the sculptures of dances in our temples."
When Pandit Subramania Sastri came to work in the Adyar Library in 1939, Dr. G S Arundale asked him to bring his wife and granddaughter with him to Adyar. Thus Sarada, who lived in seclusion in Tanjavur, was suddenly transplanted into a cosmopolitan society.
Sarada and her grandparents came to Adyar on 17 February 1937 which was Adyar Day. The International Centre for Arts, as Kalakshetra was called then, had been established on 6 January 1936. Subramania Sastri went there everyday. One day a meeting was held to choose an Indian name for registering it and Sastri too attended it. Various names were suggested but Rukmini Devi was not satisfied with any of them, but when Subramania Sastri suggested that the institution be called Kalakshetra, Dr. Arundale and others present accepted immediately.
Once, in August 1939, Sarada was asked to come with her grandfather to attend a private music concert of Papanasam Sivan. After the concert Rukmini Devi told her that she should come every day to Kalakshetra with her grandfather. During these visits, Sarada attended Rukmini Devi's dance rehearsals. One day an idea struck her: why not try to write down the dance? To quote her: "Since I knew music notation, I wrote out the song Ananda natana prakasam of Dikshitar with music notation, and underneath I wrote the gesture names, and beneath the swara-s and the adavu names synchronizing it with the tala thereof."
After some time, Rukmini Devi asked her what she was up to and when Sarada showed her what she had written, she laughed and asked, "How can dance be learnt by notation?" But Rukmini Devi had herself written down the abhinaya parts in sentences and the adavu-s with line pictures to show the form, but not in exact musical notation nor with the exact tala markings. Writing down the dance was the inspirational work of Sarada and her method is still followed in Kalakshetra and also accepted widely elsewhere.
Sarada slowly involved herself in the activities of Kalakshetra. She received much encouragement and guidance from Rukmini Devi who brought out all that was best in the shy young lady. She attended Bharatanatyam classes with Rukmini Devi's niece Radha Sriram (later Radha Burnier). She took Sanskrit classes for junior students and sometimes the veena classes when the teacher was absent. She attended the music classes of Kalidas Neelakanta Iyer, whose special forte was intricate tala. When Rukmini Devi was learning a ragamalika varnam from Pandanallur Meenakshisundaram Pillai, Sarada also attended the class. He taught the straight gesture sequences for the word-for-word meaning.
During this time Kattumannarkoil Muthukumara Pillai and Pandanallur Meenakshisundaram Pillai taught at Kalakshetra occasionally, while Chockalingam Pillai was teaching regularly.
Meenakshisundaram Pillai taught Sarada how to recite the teermanam-s, the 35 tala-s and the sollukattu-s; and the famous mridanga vidwan Bhairavan Pillai taught her how to use the tattukazhi and its tala-s. These helped her to do nattuvangam and sing along with others for the very first public performance of Rukmini Devi. In the event, she became an honorary worker in the dance and music department of Kalakshetra in 1939 and became the Head of the Dance Department in 1940.
When the Kalakshetra troupe went on education and cultural tour of South India, it presented art programs in different places; even Sarada took part in a dance-drama, Samudra Varnana. In Ootacamund, it was suggested that Sarada and Padmasani, one of her senior colleagues, should sing with Chockalingam Pillai and his son Subbarayan for Rukmini Devi’s dance recital there.
Came a time when none of the traditional nattuvanar-s were teaching at Kalakshetra. Then Rukmini Devi, Radha Sriram and Sarada began to take the dance classes.
Sankara Menon told Sarada casually one day that she should teach the alankara sastra, that is the nayika-nayaka bhava, rasa-s, etc. Sarada, Sriram and Radha were already preparing a practical lesson on the usages and gesticulations of the asamyuta and samyuta hasta-s, in accordance with the traditional way of depicting the usages (viniyoga) and they were teaching it in the 'theory' classes. After Radha left Kalakshetra, Sarada continued with preparing practical lessons for the mandala-s, turns, jumps, etc., as described in the Abhinaya Darpana, correlating theory with practice. Sarada chose the Pratapa Rudriyam for this because its sloka-s were in simple Sanskrit. She taught the relevant sloka-s for the nayaka-nayika bhava, as well as for rasa-s, and prepared a chart to explain the bhava-s, determinants, consequents and the different sets of bhava which are transformed as rasa-s or sentiments.
While it was Rukmini Devi who determined what the dance repertoire for each set of students should be, according to his or her ability to learn and individual standard in nritta, abhinaya, etc., it fell to Sarada to teach the students the selected songs.
Sarada was popular as a dance teacher because she taught through persuasion. She was given the Kalakshetra post-graduate diploma as dance teacher in 1961 at its silver jubilee convocation; she drafted the syllabus for teaching dance theory, she was a member of the Government of India Scholarships Committee for dance and also an examiner in the subject on the panel of different universities in India.
Her contribution to Bharatanatyam as a guru was recognized by the Sangeet Natak Akademi with an award in 1984.
Sarada had helped Rukmini Devi from the very first dance-drama produced by her, namely Kutrala Kuravanji. Later she edited the material for all of Kalakshetra's dance-dramas along with Venkatachala Sastry and Adi Narayana Sarma of the Besant Culture Centre.
Stalwarts like Tiger Varadachariar, Veena Krishnamachariar, Papanasam Sivan and others composed music for the various dance-dramas.
Among her numerous scholarly achievements is her assistance to Tiger Varadachariar when he was composing music for Kumarasambhavam, Papanasam Sivan for Andal Charitram, Kannappar Kuravanji, Gita Govindam, Sakuntalam, Matsya Avataram and Kurma Avataram. She also worked with Balu Bhagavatar of Melattur and with Kalyaniammal and corrected and edited Dhruva Charitra, Usha Parinayam and Rukmini Kalyanam and made it suitable for presentation by Rukmini Devi.
She helped edit and proof-read music publications of Papanasam Sivan, Veena Krishnamachariar and others. She also helped edit the musical works of Neelakanta Sivan, the Keertana Malai of Papanasam Sivan and Gana Manjari, the works of Veena Krishnamachariar, all of which have been published by Kalakshetra. She helped edit the three volumes of the Sangeeta Ratnakara and the Mela Ragamalika, both in Sanskrit, published by the Adyar Library and Research Centre.
Sarada wrote, too, the biography of Rukmini Devi cited earlier, published by the Kala Mandir Trust.
Her association with Kalakshetra gave Sarada a visa to travel abroad. She attended, as an invited delegate, the conference on traditional dance-dramas of South East Asia in Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia, when she presented a paper on South Indian Dance Dramas from Ancient to Modern Times, and she visited Europe and the United States, and gave talks on the spiritual background of Indian dance, Indian culture, Indian music, etc.
For all her closeness to Rukmini Devi, Sarada aligned herself with S Guhan and S Lakshmanan, members of the Executive Committee of Kalakshetra, who demanded greater accountability from the management of the institution than they could obtain from it. Guhan, Lakshmanan and Sarada together filed a suit in the High Court of Madras which, in the event, found for them. Rukmini Devi passed away shortly afterwards. Interestingly, this passage-at-arms did not seem in any way to diminish Sarada's admiration for Rukmini Devi as an artist.
In retirement, Sarada gave practical Bharatanatyam classes for those completing their post-graduate studies. She was also an honorary worker at the Adyar Library.
It is wrong, Sarada says, to say that Kalakshetra dance-dramas avoided sringara, packed, as they are with nayika-nayaka bhava, but they are not 'vulgar.' On a trip to Mysore, when she saw Krishna depicted as a lusty lover, she was so shocked that she wanted to throw up. Fortunately, she added humorously, she had cloves and cardamoms in her bag and quietly chewed on them.
Students of Kalakshetra who were taught by Sarada also include Yamini Krishnamurthi, V P Dhananjayan, Sarada Hoffman, Anjali Mehr, C V Chandrasekhar, Shanta Dhananjayan, Adyar Lakshman, Krishnaveni Lakshmanan and Leela Samson. When she completed 80 years of age, she was honoured by Bharata Kalanjali and the Kalakshetra Graduates Association at a function held at Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan in Madras. The warm tributes paid to her showed that she is held both in high esteem and affectionate regard. She is in the winter of her life but she must have felt only contentment.
G Sundari was a member of Kalakshetra's Executive Committee for a number of years and also assistant editor of the Kalakshetra Quarterly. She used to handle public relations. Sundari retired in 1989 and continues to do publicity for the Theosophical Society. Sundari is Sarada's companion and friend for many years and has been taking care of her till date.